How to Easily Pass the ISC CISSP Exam: Expert Advice

The use of private and public encryption keys is fundamental in the implementation of Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). SSL is a protocol that provides secure communication over the Internet by using public key cryptography and digital certificates. SSL works as follows:

• The client initiates a connection to the server and requests its digital certificate, which contains its public key and identity information.
• The server sends its digital certificate to the client, and optionally requests the client’s digital certificate as well.
• The client verifies the server’s digital certificate with a trusted third party, such as a certificate authority (CA), and optionally sends its own digital certificate to the server.
• The server verifies the client’s digital certificate with a trusted third party, if applicable.
• The client and the server use the Diffie-Hellman algorithm to generate a shared secret key, which is used to encrypt and decrypt the data exchanged between them.
• The client and the server use the shared secret key and a symmetric encryption algorithm, such as Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), to establish a secure session and communicate confidentially and reliably.

The use of private and public encryption keys is fundamental in the implementation of SSL because it enables the authentication of the parties, the establishment of the shared secret key, and the protection of the data from eavesdropping, tampering, and replay attacks.

The other options are not protocols or algorithms that use private and public encryption keys in their implementation. Diffie-Hellman algorithm is a method for generating a shared secret key between two parties, but it does not use private and public encryption keys, but rather public and private parameters. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a symmetric encryption algorithm that uses the same key for encryption and decryption, but it does not use private and public encryption keys, but rather a single secret key. Message Digest 5 (MD5) is a hash function that produces a fixed-length output from a variable-length input, but it does not use private and public encryption keys, but rather a one-way mathematical function.

The person in the organization who is accountable for the classification of data information assets is the data owner. The data owner is the person or entity that has the authority and responsibility for the creation, collection, processing, and disposal of a set of data. The data owner is also responsible for defining the purpose, value, and classification of the data, as well as the security requirements and controls for the data. The data owner should be able to determine the impact of the data on the mission of the organization, which means assessing the potential consequences of losing, compromising, or disclosing the data. The impact of the data on the mission of the organization is one of the main criteria for data classification, which helps to establish the appropriate level of protection and handling for the data. The data owner should also ensure that the data is properly labeled, stored, accessed, shared, and destroyed according to the data classification policy and procedures.

The other options are not the persons in the organization who are accountable for the classification of data information assets, but rather persons who have other roles or functions related to data management. The data architect is the person or entity that designs and models the structure, format, and relationships of the data, as well as the data standards, specifications, and lifecycle. The data architect supports the data owner by providing technical guidance and expertise on the data architecture and quality. The Chief Information Security Officer (CISO) is the person or entity that oversees the security strategy, policies, and programs of the organization, as well as the security performance and incidents. The CISO supports the data owner by providing security leadership and governance, as well as ensuring the compliance and alignment of the data security with the organizational objectives and regulations. The Chief Information Officer (CIO) is the person or entity that manages the information technology (IT) resources and services of the organization, as well as the IT strategy and innovation. The CIO supports the data owner by providing IT management and direction, as well as ensuring the availability, reliability, and scalability of the IT infrastructure and applications.

Purging is the process of removing sensitive data from a system or storage device with the intent that the data cannot be reconstructed by any known technique. Purging is also known as sanitization, erasure, or wiping, and it is a security measure to prevent unauthorized access, disclosure, or misuse of the data. Purging can be performed by using software tools or physical methods that overwrite, degauss, or destroy the data and the storage media. Purging is required when the system or storage device is decommissioned, disposed, transferred, or reused, and the data is no longer needed or has a high level of sensitivity or classification. Encryption, destruction, and clearing are not the same as purging, although they may be related or complementary processes. Encryption is the process of transforming data into an unreadable form by using a secret key or algorithm. Encryption can protect the data from unauthorized access or disclosure, but it does not remove the data from the system or storage device. The encrypted data can still be recovered if the key or algorithm is compromised or broken. Destruction is the process of physically damaging or disintegrating the system or storage device to the point that it is unusable and irreparable. Destruction can prevent the data from being reconstructed, but it may not be feasible, cost-effective, or environmentally friendly. Clearing is the process of removing data from a system or storage device by using logical techniques, such as overwriting or deleting. Clearing can protect the data from unauthorized access by normal means, but it does not prevent the data from being reconstructed by using advanced techniques, such as forensic analysis or data recovery tools. 

An advantage of an effective release control strategy from a configuration control standpoint is that it ensures that a trace for all deliverables is maintained and auditable. Release control is a process that manages the distribution and installation of software releases into the operational environment. Configuration control is a process that maintains the integrity and consistency of the software configuration items throughout the software development life cycle. An effective release control strategy can help to ensure that a trace for all deliverables is maintained and auditable, which means that the origin, history, and status of each software release can be tracked and verified. This can help to prevent unauthorized or incompatible changes, as well as to facilitate troubleshooting and recovery. Enforcing backward compatibility, ensuring no loss of functionality, and allowing for future enhancements are not advantages of release control from a configuration control standpoint, but from a functionality or performance standpoint. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 8: Software Development Security, page 969; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 7: Software Development Security, page 895.

The Identity and Access Management (IAM) process that can be used to maintain the principle of least privilege is user access review. User access review is the process of periodically reviewing and verifying the user accounts and access rights on a system or a network, and ensuring that they are appropriate, necessary, and compliant with the policies and standards. User access review can help to maintain the principle of least privilege by identifying and removing any excessive, obsolete, or unauthorized access rights that may pose a security risk or violate the regulations. User access review can also help to support the audit and compliance activities, as well as the identity lifecycle management activities. Identity provisioning, access recovery, and multi-factor authentication (MFA) are not the IAM processes that can be used to maintain the principle of least privilege, although they may be related or useful processes. Identity provisioning is the process of creating, modifying, or deleting the user accounts and access rights on a system or a network. Identity provisioning can help to establish the principle of least privilege by granting the user accounts and access rights that are aligned with the user roles or functions within the organization. However, identity provisioning is not sufficient to maintain the principle of least privilege, as the user accounts and access rights may change or become outdated over time, due to various factors, such as role changes, transfers, promotions, or terminations. Access recovery is the process of restoring the user accounts and access rights on a system or a network, after they have been lost, corrupted, or compromised. Access recovery can help to ensure the availability and integrity of the user accounts and access rights, as well as to mitigate the impact of a security incident or a disaster. However, access recovery is not a process that can be used to maintain the principle of least privilege, as it does not involve reviewing or verifying the appropriateness or necessity of the user accounts and access rights. Multi-factor authentication (MFA) is a technique that uses two or more factors of authentication to verify the identity of the user who accesses a system or a network. MFA can help to enhance the security and reliability of the authentication process, by requiring the user to provide something they know (e.g., password), something they have (e.g., token), or something they are (e.g., biometric). However, MFA is not a process that can be used to maintain the principle of least privilege, as it does not affect the user accounts and access rights, but only the user access credentials. 

 The most common method of memory protection is segmentation. Segmentation is a technique that divides the memory space into logical segments, such as code, data, stack, and heap. Each segment has its own attributes, such as size, location, access rights, and protection level. Segmentation can help to isolate and protect the memory segments from unauthorized or unintended access, modification, or execution, as well as to prevent memory corruption, overflow, or leakage. Compartmentalization, error correction, and VLAN tagging are not methods of memory protection, but of information protection, data protection, and network protection, respectively. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5: Security Engineering, page 589; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 3: Security Architecture and Engineering, page 370.

The correct matching of the functional roles and their responsibilities in an external audit is:

• Executive management: Approve audit budget and resource allocation
• Audit committee: Provide audit oversight
• Compliance officer: Ensure the achievement and maintenance of organizational requirements with applicable certifications
• External auditor: Develop and maintain knowledge and subject-matter expertise relevant to the type of audit

Comprehensive Explanation: An external audit is an independent and objective examination of an organization’s financial statements, systems, processes, or performance by an external party. The functional roles and their responsibilities in an external audit are:

• Executive management: The highest-ranking executives in the organization, who have the authority and responsibility for the overall direction and performance of the organization. They approve the audit budget and resource allocation, as well as the scope and objectives of the audit.
• Audit committee: A subcommittee of the board of directors, who oversee the audit activities and ensure the quality and integrity of the audit process. They provide audit oversight, such as selecting and appointing the external auditor, reviewing and approving the audit plan and report, and monitoring the implementation of the audit recommendations.
• Compliance officer: A person who is responsible for ensuring that the organization complies with the applicable laws, regulations, standards, and policies. They ensure the achievement and maintenance of organizational requirements with applicable certifications, such as ISO, PCI, or HIPAA, and coordinate with the external auditor to provide the necessary evidence and documentation.
• External auditor: A person who is hired by the audit committee or the executive management to conduct the external audit. They develop and maintain knowledge and subject-matter expertise relevant to the type of audit, such as financial, operational, or security audit, and follow the professional standards and guidelines for conducting the audit.

References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide

Password encryption is a capability that would typically be included in a commercially available software package designed for access control. Password encryption is a technique that transforms the plain text passwords into unreadable ciphertexts, using a cryptographic algorithm and a key. Password encryption can help to protect the passwords from unauthorized access, disclosure, or modification, as well as to prevent password cracking or guessing attacks. File encryption, source library control, and file authentication are not capabilities related to access control, but to data protection, configuration management, and data integrity, respectively. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 5: Security Engineering, page 605; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 3: Security Architecture and Engineering, page 386.

The information owner is the person who has the authority and responsibility for the information within an Information System (IS). The information owner is responsible for the protection of information when it is shared with or provided to other organizations, such as by defining the classification, sensitivity, retention, and disposal of the information, as well as by approving or denying the access requests and periodically reviewing the access rights. The system owner, the authorizing official, and the security officer are not responsible for the protection of information when it is shared with or provided to other organizations, although they may have roles and responsibilities related to the security and operation of the IS. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 48; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 1: Security and Risk Management, page 40.

Minimizing attack surface area is a proven application security principle that aims to reduce the exposure or the vulnerability of an application to potential attacks, by limiting or eliminating the unnecessary or unused features, functions, or services of the application, as well as the access or the interaction of the application with other applications, systems, or networks. Minimizing attack surface area can provide some benefits for security, such as enhancing the performance and the functionality of the application, preventing or mitigating some types of attacks or vulnerabilities, and supporting the audit and the compliance activities. Hardening the network perimeter, accepting infrastructure security controls, and developing independent modules are not proven application security principles, although they may be related or useful concepts or techniques. Hardening the network perimeter is a network security concept or technique that aims to protect the network from external or unauthorized attacks, by strengthening or enhancing the security controls or mechanisms at the boundary or the edge of the network, such as firewalls, routers, or gateways. Hardening the network perimeter can provide some benefits for security, such as enhancing the performance and the functionality of the network, preventing or mitigating some types of attacks or vulnerabilities, and supporting the audit and the compliance activities. However, hardening the network perimeter is not an application security principle, as it is not specific or applicable to the application layer, and it does not address the internal or the inherent security of the application. Accepting infrastructure security controls is a risk management concept or technique that involves accepting the residual risk of an application after applying the security controls or mechanisms provided by the underlying infrastructure, such as the hardware, the software, the network, or the cloud. Accepting infrastructure security controls can provide some benefits for security, such as reducing the cost and the complexity of the security implementation, leveraging the expertise and the resources of the infrastructure providers, and supporting the audit and the compliance activities. However, accepting infrastructure security controls is not an application security principle, as it is not a proactive or a preventive measure to enhance the security of the application, and it may introduce or increase the dependency or the vulnerability of the application on the infrastructure. Developing independent modules is a software engineering concept or technique that involves designing or creating the application as a collection or a composition of discrete or separate components or units, each with a specific function or purpose, and each with a well-defined interface or contract. Developing independent modules can provide some benefits for security, such as enhancing the usability and the maintainability of the application, preventing or isolating some types of errors or bugs, and supporting the testing and the verification activities. However, developing independent modules is not an application security principle, as it is not a direct or a deliberate measure to improve the security of the application, and it may not address or prevent some types of attacks or vulnerabilities that affect the application as a whole or the interaction between the modules.

When developing a business case for updating a security program, the security program owner must identify relevant metrics that can help to measure and evaluate the performance and the effectiveness of the security program, as well as to justify and support the investment and the return of the security program. A business case is a document or a presentation that provides the rationale or the argument for initiating or continuing a project or a program, such as a security program, by analyzing and comparing the costs and the benefits, the risks and the opportunities, and the alternatives and the recommendations of the project or the program. A business case can provide some benefits for security, such as enhancing the visibility and the accountability of the security program, preventing or detecting any unauthorized or improper activities or changes, and supporting the audit and the compliance activities. A business case can involve various elements and steps, such as:

• Problem statement, which is the description or the definition of the problem or the issue that the project or the program aims to solve or address, such as a security gap, a security threat, or a security requirement.
• Solution proposal, which is the explanation or the demonstration of the solution or the approach that the project or the program offers or adopts to solve or address the problem or the issue, such as a security tool, a security process, or a security standard.
• Cost-benefit analysis, which is the calculation or the estimation of the costs and the benefits of the project or the program, both in quantitative and qualitative terms, such as the financial, operational, or strategic costs and benefits, and the comparison or the evaluation of the costs and the benefits, to determine the feasibility and the viability of the project or the program.
• Risk assessment, which is the identification and the analysis of the risks or the uncertainties that may affect the project or the program, both in positive and negative terms, such as the threats, vulnerabilities, or opportunities, and the estimation or the evaluation of the likelihood and the impact of the risks, to determine the severity and the priority of the risks, and to develop or implement the risk mitigation or the risk management strategies or actions.
• Alternative analysis, which is the identification and the analysis of the alternative or the comparable solutions or approaches that may solve or address the problem or the issue, other than the proposed solution or approach, such as the existing or the available solutions or approaches, or the do-nothing or the status-quo option, and the comparison or the evaluation of the alternative solutions or approaches, to determine the advantages and the disadvantages, the strengths and the weaknesses, and the pros and the cons of each alternative solution or approach.
• Recommendation, which is the suggestion or the endorsement of the best or the preferred solution or approach that can solve or address the problem or the issue, based on the results or the outcomes of the previous elements or steps, such as the cost-benefit analysis, the risk assessment, or the alternative analysis, and the justification or the support of the recommendation, by providing the evidence or the data that can validate or verify the recommendation.

Identifying relevant metrics is a key element or step of developing a business case for updating a security program, as it can help to measure and evaluate the performance and the effectiveness of the security program, as well as to justify and support the investment and the return of the security program. Metrics are measures or indicators that can quantify or qualify the attributes or the outcomes of a process or an activity, such as the security program, and that can provide the information or the feedback that can facilitate the decision making or the improvement of the process or the activity. Metrics can provide some benefits for security, such as enhancing the accuracy and the reliability of the security program, preventing or detecting fraud or errors, and supporting the audit and the compliance activities. Identifying relevant metrics can involve various tasks or duties, such as:

• Defining and documenting the objectives, scope, criteria, and methodology of the metrics, and ensuring that they are consistent and aligned with the business case and the security program.
• Selecting and collecting the data or the evidence that are related to the metrics, using various tools and techniques, such as surveys, interviews, tests, or audits.
• Analyzing and interpreting the data or the evidence that are related to the metrics, using various methods and models, such as statistical, mathematical, or graphical methods or models.
• Reporting and communicating the results or the findings of the metrics, using various formats and channels, such as reports, dashboards, or presentations.

Preparing performance test reports, obtaining resources for the security program, and interviewing executive management are not the tasks or duties that the security program owner must do when developing a business case for updating a security program, although they may be related or possible tasks or duties. Preparing performance test reports is a task or a technique that can be used by the security program owner, the security program team, or the security program auditor, to verify or validate the functionality and the quality of the security program, according to the standards and the criteria of the security program, and to detect and report any errors, bugs, or vulnerabilities in the security program. Obtaining resources for the security program is a task or a technique that can be used by the security program owner, the security program sponsor, or the security program manager, to acquire or allocate the necessary or the sufficient resources for the security program, such as the financial, human, or technical resources, and to manage or optimize the use or the distribution of the resources for the security program. Interviewing executive management is a task or a technique that can be used by the security program owner, the security program team, or the security program auditor, to collect and analyze the information and the feedback about the security program, from the executive management, who are the primary users or recipients of the security program, and who have the authority and the accountability to implement or execute the security program. 

The best location in a network to place Virtual Private Network (VPN) devices when an internal review reveals network design flaws in remote access is in a dedicated Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). A DMZ is a network segment that is located between the internal network and the external network, such as the internet. A DMZ is used to host the services or devices that need to be accessed by both the internal and external users, such as web servers, email servers, or VPN devices. A VPN device is a device that enables the establishment of a VPN, which is a secure and encrypted connection between two networks or endpoints over a public network, such as the internet. Placing the VPN devices in a dedicated DMZ can help to improve the security and performance of the remote access, as well as to isolate the VPN devices from the internal network and the external network. Placing the VPN devices in its own separate VLAN, at the ISP, or outside the external firewall are not the best locations, as they may expose the VPN devices to more risks, reduce the control over the VPN devices, or create a single point of failure for the remote access. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 6: Communication and Network Security, page 729; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4: Communication and Network Security, page 509.

Gratuitous ARP is a special type of ARP message that a sender device broadcasts on the network without any other device requesting it. It can be useful for updating the ARP table, changing the address of an interface, or informing the network of the sender’s own MAC address. However, it also introduces the risk of a Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) attack, where an attacker can send a spoofed gratuitous ARP message to trick other devices into associating a legitimate IP address with a malicious MAC address. This way, the attacker can intercept, modify, or redirect the traffic intended for the legitimate device. Therefore, the network architect likely designed the VoIP system with gratuitous ARP disabled to prevent such attacks and ensure the security and integrity of the voice communication. References: Gratuitous ARP – Definition and Use Cases - Practical Networking .net; Gratuitous_ARP - Wireshark

The most challenging issue in apprehending cyber criminals is that the crime is often committed from a different jurisdiction. This means that the cyber criminals may operate from a different country or region than the victim or the target, and thus may be subject to different laws, regulations, and enforcement agencies. This can create difficulties and delays in identifying, locating, and prosecuting the cyber criminals, as well as in obtaining and preserving the digital evidence. The other issues, such as the sophistication of the methods, the integrity of the evidence, and the lack of physical evidence, are also challenges in apprehending cyber criminals, but they are not as significant as the jurisdiction issue. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 4: Security Operations, page 475; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 4: Communication and Network Security, page 544.

 The discovery phase of a vulnerability assessment is the process of identifying and enumerating the hosts, services, and applications that are in scope of the assessment. This phase involves techniques such as network scanning, port scanning, service scanning, and banner grabbing. If one third of the hosts that were in scope are missing from the report, it means that the discovery phase was not performed properly or completely, and some hosts were not detected or included in the assessment. The enumeration, reporting, and detection phases are not likely to cause this error, as they depend on the results of the discovery phase. References: CISSP All-in-One Exam Guide, Eighth Edition, Chapter 7: Security Assessment and Testing, page 857; Official (ISC)2 Guide to the CISSP CBK, Fifth Edition, Chapter 6: Security Assessment and Testing, page 794.